New Researchers

Looking at the child: The invisible scars of domestic and family violence

27 April 2021 by admin

In this feature article, Jodi Dorney (EdD Candidate, CQ University) explores the impact of domestic and family violence and abuse on young children. If you or someone you know is experiencing abuse or violence contact the National Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence Counselling service on 1800 737 732. Alternatively, you can call lifeline on 131114.

Some scholars argue that the family home is the most dangerous place for women and children ^[1]. Whilst it can at times be easy to identify a child who is a victim of physical abuse, it is more difficult to identify the child who does not present with the external signs and symptoms, but rather suffers due to witnessing their parent – usually the mother – being abused in the ‘safety’ of the family home.

But how is a child a victim if they are not touched, pushed, or hit?

The rate of women experiencing abuse and violence in the family environment is estimated to be one in three globally^[2] and homicides perpetrated by a current or former male intimate partner account for approximately 38% of all global homicides against women^[3], a figure that continues to rise^{[4, 5]}. We see or read these stories way too often, with an average of one woman dying every week at the hands of an intimate partner in Australia.

It is estimated that one in four children under five years of age live in a family environment where the mother is a victim of intimate partner violence^[5], and whilst many of these children do not suffer direct physical abuse at the hands of the offender, they are witness to often horrific and violent physical attacks on their mother. They may also be witness to their mother being emotionally abused and/or psychologically abused. Emotional abuse is aimed at affecting the person’s feelings, while psychological abuse often involves frightening, isolating and/or controlling someone, consequently impacting their mental health.

Research identified indirect experiences of domestic and family violence can result in negative psychological, physical, and behavioural impacts ^{[6, 7, 8]} on the child, and negative effects on their cognitive development ^[5] , and social and emotional development and functioning ^{[5, 8, 10, 11].}

Also, much evidence suggests that because a child usually experiences recurrent exposure to domestic and family violence, often they develop cognitive and behavioural schemas over time related to their gender, such as devaluing their own worth, lack of confidence in adults as protectors, and they may believe that abuse and violence within in the family context is a normal experience for girls ^[5] and abusive behaviours are normal for boys, which explains the intergenerational transmission effect over generations.

Children learn about emotions primarily from parents and others within the family; however, children living in an abusive and violent family context may be deprived of positive emotional engagement with their parents^[11]. Research suggests mothers who are victims of domestic and family violence can suffer from symptoms of anxiety and depression, and may be inattentive, unresponsive, and demonstrate a lack of interest toward their child resulting in insecure attachment ^{[11, 12]}, impacting the child’s opportunity to learn skills to manage, identify, and express personal emotions ^{[9, 13]}.

The sometimes erratic, aggressive, and explosive externalising behaviour of a child (usually a boy, because girls usually adopt an internalised victim-mentality) who has been exposed to abuse and violence in the family environment can hinder opportunities for the child to engage in positive social interactions with friends and adults ^[14]. Furthermore, unstable, unpredictable, and fractured connections between the child and parents within a violent environment can promote a lack of trust, safety, and security within the child and a failure to acquire and learn fundamental social skills ^[15].

Early childhood is a crucial time for a child’s language development^[15] too, as language skills allow a child to communicate and connect with others, and these interactions promote the development of cognitive skills ^[15].

Family environments lacking in stimulation also have the potential of inhibiting the brain to develop to its full potential ^[15] . Suffering stress within an abusive and violent family environment has been identified as a potential precursor to diminished cognitive development as it can impair the young child’s brain ^[15]. Children living with domestic and family violence often experience fear and subsequently suffer chronic stress ^[15], and it has been identified that children who experience stress and constant anxiety may have cognitive difficulties such as thinking clearly enough to problem solve and reason, and may have difficulty sustaining attention, resulting in the inability to acquire new skills or new information ^[16], which can result in educational deficits.

As many people may not be aware that witnessing domestic and family violence as a young child can have such detrimental effects on a child’s development and wellbeing, and with 2020 being a year where rates of domestic and family violence have reportedly increased ^[16], it is crucial that as educators we engage in the sometimes uncomfortable and confronting conversations about the visible and invisible effects of domestic and family violence with others, including peers and parents.

The focus of my current research is on the impact of intrafamilial violence on children in early childhood, and through exploring early childhood educators’ knowledge regarding the impact of exposure to intrafamilial violence on a developing child, I aim to develop a professional teaching resource prototype that supports early childhood educators to effectively identify, respond to, and support children impacted by intrafamilial violence.

It is essential that we advocate for and be aware of all children impacted by domestic and family violence, directly and/or indirectly and keep their safety and wellbeing at the forefront of our endeavours.

Jodi Dorney is an early childhood educator from Victoria, currently completing her Doctor of Education at CQUniversity. Her interest and advocacy for children impacted by intrafamilial violence results from many years working in various early childhood education settings.

[1] United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2018). Gender-related killing of women and girls. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/GSH2018/GSH18_Gender-related_killing_of_women_and_girls.pdf

[2] World Health Organisation (WHO). (2019). Respect women: Preventing violence against women. Geneva. Retrieved from https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/312261/WHO-RHR-18.19-eng.pdf?ua=1

[3] Lutwak, N. (2018). The psychology of health and illness: The mental health and physiological effects of intimate partner violence on women. The Journal of Psychology, 152(6), 373-387. doi:10.1080/00223980.2018.1447435

[4] Guggisberg, M. (2018). Chapter 2: Conceptualising intimate partner sexual violence: danger and harm to victim survivors and the role of persistent myths. In Guggisberg, M., & Henricksen, J. (Eds.)., Violence against women in the 21st century: Challenges and future direction (pp. 29-56). Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated.

[5] United Nations Children’s Fund. (UNICEF). (2017). A familiar face: violence in the lives of children and adolescents. Unicef: New York, NY. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/publications/files/Violence_in_the_lives_of_children_and_adolescents.pdf

[6] Carpenter, G., & Stacks, A. M. (2009). Developmental effects of exposure to intimate partner violence in early childhood: A review of the literature. Children and Youth Services Review, 31(8), 831-839. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.cqu.edu.au/10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.03.005

[7] Howell, K. (2011). Resilience and psychopathology in children exposed to family violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16(6), 562-569. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.cqu.edu.au/10.1016/j.avb.2011.09.001

[8] Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Carter, A. S., & Ford, J. D. (2012). Parsing the effects violence exposure in early childhood: Modeling developmental pathways. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 37(1), 11-22. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsro63

[9] Fusco, R. A. (2017). Socioemotional problems in children exposed to intimate partner violence: Mediating effects of attachment and family supports. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(16), 2515–2532. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.cqu.edu.au/10.1177%2F0886260515593545

[10] Osofsky, J. (1995). The Effects of Exposure to Violence on Young Children. The American Psychologist, 50(9), 782-788.

[11] Gelfand, D. M., & Teti, D. M. (1990). The effects of maternal depression on children. Clinical Psychology Review, 10(3), 329-353. https://doi-org.ezproxy.cqu.edu.au/10.1016/0272-7358(90)90065-I

[12] Zahn-Waxler, C., Iannotti, R., Cummings, E., & Denham, S. (1990). Antecedents of problem behaviors in children of depressed mothers. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 271-291. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400000778

[13] Cummings, E., Cicchetti, D., & Greenberg, M. (1990). Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention.

[14] The National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN). (2019). Complex trauma: effects. Retrieved from https://www.nctsn.org/what-is-child-trauma/trauma-types/complex-trauma/effects

[15] Zauche, L., Thul, T., Mahoney, A., & Stapel-Wax, J. (2016). Influence of language nutrition on children’s language and cognitive development: An integrated review. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 36, 318-333.

[16] Morgan, A. & Boxall, H. (2020). Social isolation, time spent at home, financial stress and domestic violence during the COVID-19 pandemic. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, 609, 1-18.

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Educating tomorrow’s women*: Ovulatory-menstrual health literacy as a lifelong skill

12 April 2021 by admin

In this feature article, Felicity Roux (PhD Candidate, Curtin University) explores the power of the ovulatory-menstrual cycle as a personal health monitor and ovulatory-menstrual health literacy. Felicity is a member of the WAIER Committee for 2021.

* The terms girls and women are used in relation to a person’s sex (i.e. their biological characteristics or reproductive organs). It is recognised that this may differ from gender identity. For example, someone who menstruates may or may not identify as “female”.

The span of years from menarche to menopause can extend 40 years or more. Throughout this time, the ovulatory-menstrual cycle can be used as a personal health monitor. According to the American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists, the cycle is a “powerful tool” to assess overall health, and menstruation can be considered a vital sign ^[1]. This means that the cycle is of equal significance to a beating heart and breathing lungs. So it stands to reason that the ability of a woman to understand her own cycles as her personal health monitor would be a useful lifelong skill. The way in which these basic skills can be learnt has been available to the general public since the 1980s ^[2]. However, a recent systematic literature review describes how, some forty years later, these health literacy skills are insufficiently taught ^[3].

It is a mistake to believe that all things menstrual are covered in the puberty lessons for Years 5 to 7. The immaturity of the average girl’s hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis means that post-menarche cycles are mostly anovulatory ^[4]. It can take up to three years for ovulatory processes to mature^[5]. Years 8 to 10 are when girls become most likely capable of appropriating the complexity of the cycle ^[6]. Coincidentally, common menstrual problems are increasingly reported, such as painful periods ^[7], premenstrual syndrome ^[8] and abnormal bleeding patterns ^[9]. Some problems are associated with absenteeism ^{[7, 8]}, reduced classroom performance ^{[7, 8]}, body dissatisfaction ^[10], eating disorders ^[11], non-suicidal self-injury ^[12], and poor quality of life ^[13].

The review ^[3] suggested that a crowded Health & Physical Education curriculum results in insufficient time to teach girls ovulatory-menstrual health literacy skills. As a taboo topic shrouded in shame and stigma ^[14], there may also be a reluctance to teach it.

Where there have been initiatives to address menstrual health, programs tended to focus on a single problem (such as painful periods or irregular cycles) rather than addressing all of the most commonly experienced problems. Furthermore, by predicating programs on a menstrual problem, there is likely a missed opportunity to frame the cycle positively as an indicator of good health first and foremost. Whilst there has been some progress towards teaching girls ovulatory-menstrual health literacy, the review³ found no programs which covered all the health literacy dimensions (functional, interactive and critical), upon which the Western Australian curriculum is based ^[15].

The review’s recommendations ^[3] informed the development of the My Vital Cycles program which will be trialled in Term 2 and 3 of 2021.

[1] American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists Committee. (2015). Opinion No. 651: Menstruation in Girls and Adolescents: Using the Menstrual Cycle as a Vital Sign. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 126(6), e143-e146 doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000001215

[2] Billings, E., & Westmore, A. (1980). The Billings Method: Controlling fertility without drugs or devices. Richmond, Victoria Australia: Anne O’Donovan Pty Ltd.

[3] Roux, F., Burns, S., Hendriks, J., & Chih, H.J. (2021). Progressing Towards Adolescent Ovulatory menstrual Health Literacy: A Systematic Literature Review of School-based Interventions. Women’s Reproductive Health, 8(2). doi:10.1080/23293691.2021.1901517

[4] Carlson, L., & Shaw, N. (2019). Development of Ovulatory Menstrual Cycles in Adolescent Girls. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 32(3), 249-253. doi:10.1016/j.jpag.2019.02.119

[5] Jamieson, M. (2015). Disorders of Menstruation in Adolescent Girls. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 62(4), 943-961. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2015.04.007

[6] Klaus, H., & Martin, J. L. (1989). Recognition of Ovulatory/Anovulatory Cycle Pattern in Adolescents by Mucus Self-Detection. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 10, 93-96

[7] Armour, M., Parry, K., Manohar, N., Holmes, K., Ferfolja, T., Curry, C., . . . Smith, C. A. (2019). The Prevalence and Academic Impact of Dysmenorrhea in 21,573 Young Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Women’s Health, 28(8), 1161-1171. doi:10.1089/jwh.2018.7615

[8] Parker, M., Sneddon, A., & Arbon, P. (2010). The menstrual disorder of teenagers (MDOT) study: determining typical menstrual patterns and menstrual disturbance in a large population‐based study of Australian teenagers. BJOG, 117(2), 185-192. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.2009.02407.x

[9] Maslyanskaya, S., et al. (2017). Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: An Under-recognized Cause of Abnormal Uterine Bleeding in Adolescents Admitted to a Children’s Hospital. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 30(3), 349-355

[10] Ambresin, A.-E., Belanger, R. E., Chamay, C., Berchtold, A., & Narring, F. (2012). Body Dissatisfaction on Top of Depressive Mood among Adolescents with Severe Dysmenorrhea. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 25(1), 19-22. doi:10.1016/j.jpag.2011.06.014

[11] Abraham, S., Boyd, C., Lal, M., Luscombe, G., & Taylor, A. (2009). Time since menarche, weight gain and body image awareness among adolescent girls: onset of eating disorders. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology, 30(2), 89-94. doi:10.1080/01674820902950553

[12] Liu, X., Liu, Z. Z., Fan, F., & Jia, C. X. (2018). Menarche and menstrual problems are associated with non-suicidal self-injury in adolescent girls. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 21(6), 649-656. doi:10.1007/s00737-018-0861-y

[13] Knox, B., Nur Azurah, A., & Grover, S. (2015). Quality of life and menstruation in adolescents. Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 27(5), 309-314. doi:10.1097/GCO.0000000000000199

[14] Chrisler, J. C. (2013). Teaching Taboo Topics. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(1), 128-132. doi:10.1177/0361684312471326

[15] SCSA – School Curriculum and Standards Authority, Government of Western Australia. (2017). Health and Physical Education Curriculum 2017/9396 [2017/9397] https://k10outline.scsa.wa.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/364552/Health-and-Physical-Education-Curriculum-Pre-primary-to-Year-10.PDF Accessed 2020 06 16

Teachers are expected to put on a brave face and ignore their emotions. We need to talk about it.

11 March 2021 by admin

In this feature article Dr. Saul Karnovsky from Curtin University explores teachers’ emotions.

Australian universities enrol thousands of people to become teachers. Some who choose to study education are motivated by a desire to make a difference to the lives of young people, while others are looking for job security and intellectual fulfilment.

A course in education encompasses a broad range of cognitive and technical skills aligned to professional teacher standards. Yet, what is largely missing from a teaching degree is what to do with emotions as a teacher.

Despite all the theory, training and practical experience, research shows teachers’ professional lives can be highly demanding, pressured, stressful and at times, emotionally exhausting.

In doctoral research, I followed pre-service teachers throughout their course. I found there exists an invisible rule book that defines what teachers can and cannot do with their emotions.

Emotional labour is hard work

Our teachers recently started the school year. Many are likely facing a range of emotional challenges including working with difficult students and communities, managing increasing administrative control over their work and standardisation reforms. All these can result in substantial mental health issues.

One Australian study found increasing numbers of teachers suffer from persistent anxiety and depression. Up to 50% burn out or simply leave in the first five years of their career.

Early studies are showing the COVID-19 lockdowns of 2020 are further exacerbating the stresses facing Australian teachers.

Because teaching is emotionally demanding, teachers experience what is known as “emotional labour”. This is when teachers have to manage, suppress or feign their emotions as part of the work. Like other forms of labour, doing so can become exhausting.

Understanding these facts is a fundamental part of learning to become a teacher. I’ve come to know this through years of researching teacher emotions, specifically focused on those learning to teach.

Putting on a mask

I spoke with and collected questionnaires from almost one hundred education students in a large Western Australian university. I wanted to find out how someone who wants to become a teacher learnt what they should or should not be doing with their emotions in secondary schools.

I found pre-service teachers learnt about the rules for emotional behaviour from expectations and assumptions about teacher’s work, which was confirmed when they began training in school placements.

From interviews, focus groups, diary entries and questionnaires, I have summarised some of the unwritten rules these teaching students spoke of:

Don’t ever cry in front of students, because if you do, they will see you as weak and eat you alive.
Don’t lose your temper, shout or get angry, because if you do, students will lose respect for you.
Don’t show your emotional vulnerability, especially not to other teachers, because if you do, they might think you are not right for the job.

Many pre-service teachers explained they worked at “hiding” or “suppressing” their vulnerable emotions from students and other teachers.

Some said they put on a “mask”, “a brave face” or “façade” to show they were “professional” and could “control” their emotions.

One participant experienced “intense frustration” during school placement in trying to manage and engage a group of behaviourally difficult students, which led to her feeling “emotionally overwhelmed”.

She hid these emotions from her supervising teacher, telling me she did not want to “appear weak”. So she held back her tears because she would “hate” being the “little woman that cries at work, who gets upset”.

This shows there exists a demand for teachers to behave in ways they believe to be acceptable. All these pre-service teachers have learnt to keep a hold of their “inappropriate” emotions in front of other teachers or risk being perceived as incompetent and unprofessional.

Let’s talk about it

Navigating the emotional rules of learning to teach is a significant aspect of becoming a teacher, yet it goes largely unrecognised in an initial teacher education course.

Such labour in teaching can have personal costs and lead to emotional exhaustion, depression and anxiety.

If we are to ensure thousands of newly enrolled teachers are to thrive in their courses and careers, we must make the invisible emotional rules of the profession seen and heard.

I believe if pre-service teachers can come together with teacher educators to explore these emotional rules, they could build resilience to confront the many emotional challenges of modern teaching.

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Dr. Saul Karnovsky is a member of the WAIER Committee for 2021.

Recognising and respecting the right of all children to play

25 November 2020 by admin

Dr Madeleine Rose Dobson is a Senior Lecturer in the Curtin University School of Education, and a WAIER Committee Member. In this feature article Madeleine explores the benefits of play and the importance of advocating for play.

The significance of play deserves recognition and respect by all stakeholders in children’s lives. Play is recognised as a right of all children in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Research that speaks to the benefits of play is long-existing, extensive, and decisive. Play is integral to children’s development across domains (e.g. Gordon, 2014) and influences key areas such as children’s psychological wellbeing (e.g. Chang, Qian & Yarnal, 2013), resilience and social competence (e.g. Casey, Stagnitti, Taket & Nolan, 2012), imaginative and creative thinking (e.g. Sansanwal, 2014), and problem-solving (e.g. Solis, Curtis & Hayes-Messinger, 2017).

And yet, there are persistent and pernicious barriers for educators, children, families and communities to confront. An erosion of play is noted across media, curriculum, and ideology (Lewis, 2017). In some schools, play has become taboo and educators are pressured to favour more ‘academic’ types of learning and teaching – this, of course, ignores the reality that play and learning are closely linked and often indistinguishable (Pendlebury, 2016). Outdoor play has become extremely limited (Bento & Dias, 2017), and further to that, not all families and communities have access to the kind of spaces where play is welcomed and encouraged. Play is often misconceptualised as belonging solely to the early years, when in fact, older children are just as deserving of opportunities to engage in play and playful ways of learning.

In my role as Lecturer and Course Coordinator of Early Childhood at Curtin University’s School of Education, I am fortunate to have the opportunity to work closely with pre-service teachers and new graduates who are well-versed in the importance of play and who are ambitious and innovative in their implementation of play-based learning methods. Last year, I led Curtin University’s School of Education creation and dissemination of a position statement on play. This statement acknowledges the centrality and multidimensionality of play in children’s lives, and calls for adults to advocate for and contribute to children’s play. There are many ways in which this can be accomplished.

In schools, educators can pursue play-based and inquiry learning methods where children are engaged with agency – Journeys of Inquiry offers comprehensive guidance and insightful case-studies about how the realisation of this method across Western Australian independent schools. Green school grounds are also a valuable pursuit – naturalising school environments through gardens, nature-based play spaces, and connections to nearby bushland or woodland can support children’s wellbeing and create opportunities for discovery, creativity, and collaboration (Chawla, Keena, Pevec & Stanley, 2014).

Parents and carers can create and seek out opportunities for play at home and in local community contexts – their investment in playful interactions are thoroughly advantageous for their children and their child-parent/carer relationship (Ginsburg, 2007). At a broader community level, we should be investing in child-friendly cities and play spaces that embrace the ‘Seven Cs’: character, context, connectivity, change, chance, clarity, and challenge. For researchers, there is work yet to be done – as children’s ways of living, learning, and playing continue to evolve, further research is not only possible but imperative.

Lastly, ongoing advocacy in this space is critical. Not only is play a right of all children, it is a meaningful and formative part of their lives. As we continue pushing for greater recognition and respect for the benefits of play and its place in our educational contexts and communities, it is vital that our advocacy involve children. The perspectives and experiences of children are of great value in this space and can take us beyond adult understandings (Nicholson, Shimpi, Kurnik, Carducci & Jevgjovikj, 2014). Play is worth fighting for – as we keep fighting for it, we ought to do so in partnership with children, who are the very people most involved and affected.

References

Bento, G. & Dias, G. (2017). The importance of outdoor play for young children’s healthy development. Porto Biomedical Journal, 2(5), 157-160. doi:10.1016/j.pbj.2017.03.003

Casey, S.A., Stagnitti, K., Taket, A. & Nolan, A. (2012). Early peer play interactions of resilient children living in disadvantaged communities. International Journal of Play, 1(3), 311-323. doi:10.1080/21594937.2012.741432

Chang, P., Qian, X. & Yarnal, C. (2013). Using playfulness to cope with psychological stress: taking into account both positive and negative emotions. International Journal of Play, 2(3), 273-296. doi:10.1080/21594937.2013.855414

Chawla, L., Keena, K., Pevec, I. & Stanley, E. (2014). Green schoolyards as havens from stress and resources for resilience in childhood and adolescence. Health & Place, 28, 1-13. doi: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2014.03.001

Duncan, R. (2018). Journeys of inquiry. Osborne Park, WA: AISWA.

Ginsburg, K.R. (2007). The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent–child bonds. Pediatrics, 119(1), doi: 10.1542/peds.2006-2697

Gordon, G. (2014). Well played: The origins and future of playfulness. American Journal of Play, 6(2), 234-266.

Herrington, S., Lesmeister, C., Nicholls, J. & Stefiuk, K. (2007). 7Cs: An informational guide to young children’s outdoor play spaces. Retrieved from https://sala.ubc.ca/sites/sala.ubc.ca/files/documents/7Cs.pdf

Laker, L. (2018). What would the ultimate child-friendly city look like? The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2018/feb/28/child-friendly-city-indoors-playing-healthy-sociable-outdoors

Lewis, P.J. (2017). The erosion of play. International Journal of Play, 1, 10-23. doi:10.1080/21594937.2017.1288391

Nicholson, J., Shimpi, P.M., Kurnik, J., Carducci, C. & Jevgjovikj, M. (2014). Listening to children’s perspectives on play across the lifespan: children’s right to inform adults’ discussions of contemporary play. International Journal of Play, 3(2), 136-156. doi:10.1080/21594937.2014.937963

Pendlebury, K. (2016). Mental recreation in Wonderland. American Journal of Play, 9(1), 41-55.

Sansanwal, S. (2014). Pretend play enhances creativity and imagination. Journal of Arts and Humanities, 3(1), 70-83.

Solis, S.L., Curtis, K.N. & Hayes-Messinger, A. (2017). Children’s exploration of physical phenomena during object play. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 31(1), 122-140. doi: 10.1080/02568543.2016.1244583

UN General Assembly. (1989). Convention on the rights of the child. https://www.unicef.org/crc/

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Botanical Literacies in Early Childhood

25 November 2020 by admin

In this feature article Kimberley Beasley explores children’s botanical literacies. Kimberley is a Doctoral Candidate at Murdoch University and a WAIER member.

Western Australia has one of the highest numbers of endemic plants and flowers on the planet and is listed as one of only 35 global biological hotspots (Fitzpatrick, Gove, Sanders, & Dunn, 2008). Through my work as a designer of nature playspaces for early years services and schools, I have found that young children appreciate the beauty of plants in their spaces, but they do not know many of the names of the plants or have much botanical knowledge of plants in general. In most cultures, plant knowledge, also known as botanical literacy is traditionally passed down from family members including grandparents and parents.

Botanical literacy is described by Uno (2009) as a type of biological literacy or ecological literacy and it is defined as the knowledge of plants and botany. The information below has been adapted (Uno, 2009) to explain the levels of botanical literacies and the knowledge included in each level.

– Nominal level: Students can identify terms that relate to botany however cannot define or describe the words and may have misconceptions of the terms.

– Functional level: Students can use botanical vocabulary and define terms correctly, but responses may be memorized and not deeply understood.

– Structural level: Students can understand botanical concepts, possess procedural knowledge and skills and can explain concepts well in their own words.

– Multi-dimensional level: Students understand the place of botany and biology as a science, know the nature and history of plants and can explain the interactions between the botanical world and society.

Uno explains that most children internationally sit within the nominal levels of knowledge and understanding and he suggests that it is critical for educators to build literacies in the biological sciences (Uno, 2009).

Other international research has found low botanical literacies or ‘plant-blindness’ is due to social changes on families and the community and this has resulted in less traditional plant knowledge being passed on. Several studies have explained ‘plant blindness’ as becoming more prevalent in both adults and children (Patrick & Tunnicliffe, 2011; Uno, 2009; Villarroel, J. D., Ant n, A., Zuazagoitia, D., & Nu o, T., 2018). ‘Plant blindness’ is the inability to recognise not only plants and their names, but also their importance in the environment and a belief that plants are inferior to humans and animals (Wandersee & Schussler, 2001). The ramifications of a decrease in levels of botanical literacies, and an increase in cases of ‘plant blindness’ is likely to have detrimental effects for efforts in sustainability and the care of our planet.

Many of the early childhood and school environments in Western Australia have an abundance of plants and trees and many are adjacent to bushland and parks. Across Australia, there has also been a dramatic increase in the last 10 years of schools and early learning centres adding nature play spaces to their play and learning environments (Elliott & Young, 2016). The research to date has found overwhelmingly that the benefits of children being and playing in nature are significant (Bruni, Winter, Schultz, Omoto, & Tabanico, 2017; Chawla, 2018; Ritchie, 2017). These benefits include, but are not limited to; healthier children who engage in more physical play, boosted brain development, stronger emotional development and social bonds and more creative play (Wilson, 2018).

However, researchers interested in sustainability in early childhood education are beginning to question if changes to the physical environment are enough to make a difference in increasing children’s connection with nature and deepening childrens understandings of biological literacies, including botanical literacies (Elliott & Young, 2016; Huggins & Evans, 2018). The development of botanical literacy is essential for children to form caring and sustainable beliefs and behaviours about plants and the Earth (Ritchie, 2017).

With an awareness of the importance of endemic plants in Western Australia and developing sustainable practices and plant knowledge in young children, what is the role of the early childhood educator in improving botanical literacies in young children in Western Australia? It has been suggested that connecting children deeply to nature through regular contact with nature and having a knowledgeable and passionate adult role model to demonstrate the connection and share knowledge of plants and the natural world can make a difference to what? (Chawla, 2018).

My present doctoral research project will address this topic through participative action research with 4 early childhood classes in Western Australian Primary Schools. The research will explore the existing levels of botanical literacies in educators and children through a term long project with the classes. The children will explore and learn about the trees and plants on their school grounds and source plant knowledge from community experts and local Indigenous elders to build botanical literacies in young children.

References

Bruni, C. M., Winter, P. L., Schultz, P. W., Omoto, A. M., & Tabanico, J. J. (2017). Getting to know nature: evaluating the effects of the Get to Know Program on children’s connectedness with nature. Environmental Education Research, 23 (1), 43-62. doi:10.1080/13504622.2015.1074659

Chawla, L. (2018). Nature-based learning for student achievement and ecological citizenship. Curriculum and Teaching Dialogue, 20½, R25-176.

Elliott, S., & Young, T. (2016). Nature by Default in Early Childhood Education for Sustainability. Australian Journal of Environmental Education, 32(1), 57-64.

Fitzpatrick, M. C., Gove, A. D., Sanders, N. J., & Dunn, R. R. (2008). Climate change, plant migration, and range collapse in a global biodiversity hotspot: the Banksia (Proteaceae) of Western Australia. Global Change Biology, 14(6), 1337-1352. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01559.x

Huggins, V., & Evans, D. (2018). Early Childhood Education and Care for Sustainabilty; International Perspectives. New York: Routledge.

Patrick, P., & Tunnicliffe, S. D. (2011). What plants and animals do early childhood and primary students’ name? Where do they see them? Journal of Science Education and Technology, 20 (5), 630-642. doi:10.1007/s10956-011-9290-7

Ritchie, J. (2017). Fostering Eco-Cultural Literacies for Social, Cultural and Ecological Justice: A Perspective From Aotearoa (New Zealand). International Journal of Early Childhood, 49 (3), 287-302. doi:10.1007/s13158-017-0198-0

Uno, G. E. (2009). Botanical literacy: What and how should students learn about plants? American Journal of Botany, 96 (10), 1753-1759. doi:10.3732/ajb.0900025

Villarroel, J. D., Ant n, A., Zuazagoitia, D., & Nu o, T. (2018). Young children’s understanding of plant life: a study exploring rural-urban differences in their drawings. Journal of Biological Education, 52 (3), 331-341. doi:10.1080/00219266.2017.1385505

Wilson, R. A. (2018). Nature and Young Children. New York: Routledge.

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Emotionless, malleable little ornaments: Is this our image of children?

25 November 2020 by admin

In this feature article Dr. Madeleine Dobson and Associate Professor Jenny Jay from the Curtin University School of Education explore the image of the child on social media.

The representation of children matters. When children are represented – whether, for example, in film and television, or on social media – this is not without consequence. These representations hold significance, are steeped in context, and contribute to how we perceive children and childhood. Perceptions of children and childhood inform and influence our relationships with children, across important contexts including parenting, education and care, and research.

In Early Childhood Education and Care, educators and leaders hold and advocate for a strong ‘image of the child’ where children are recognised as unique individuals with capability, agency, and a right to choice and voice. There are many other ways of conceptualising children – we feel this is worthy of exploration, and are curious as to how different conceptualisations may intersect or conflict.

Our current research focuses on the representation of children on Instagram and what image of children and childhood exist in this context. Through a multi-phase approach that includes analysing representations of children by influencer parents and high-profile children’s brands, we are seeking a rich understanding of how the image of the child might be evolving and what this might mean. We are curious about the influences and impacts upon children, families, educators, and communities.

This project stems from curiosities about Instagram as a platform where children are highly visible in a visual and narrative sense. As photos and videos of children are shared, along with stories and commentary, certain ideas emerge regarding who children are and what childhood means. Social communities shape conceptions of children and childhood – we view Instagram as one such social community which has the potential to influence its audience and shape/re-shape ideas about children and childhood.

We also approached this research with mindfulness towards the importance and impact of visual representations. Contemporary culture is described as ‘occularcentric’ where visual imagery is pervasive. Visual representations are imbued with complexities and are situated within histories and hierarchies.

Our research seeks to explore these complexities and ideas around power, choice, and voice in the context of how children are visually represented on Instagram in photos and videos. We have taken a holistic approach which involves examining posts in their entirety – the image/video, tags, caption, and comments – with mindfulness towards the child depicted, the narrative presented, and what conversation stems from this. Key questions we have asked include:

How is the child presented? Are they clothed and styled in a childlike way or an adultified way?
Is the child engaged in an activity or are they still?
Do we see the child’s face? If so, what emotion is conveyed?
Where is focus placed in the caption and comments – on the child’s point of view and experience, or somewhere else?

Emotionless, malleable little ornaments: Is this our image of children? — Image by Bekah Russom via Unsplash

As we have explored Instagram and the many images of children and childhood shared there, we have identified certain tropes that demand examination. These tropes rarely exist in isolation from each other – they are often entangled in the image and its connected components. The tropes include:

Children as emotionless: This was most apparent across the brands we examined. Children are frequently represented as emotionless and disengaged. For example, they are often depicted with a blank expression, and also may be staring out of frame. Were we to observe this behaviour from a child in our care, it would be cause for concern. In the context of brand posts, it seems to be glamourised, and we feel this type of representation lends itself to the adultification of children.
Children as malleable: The malleability of children emerged as a key theme after analysing many posts from parents and brands. Children are often depicted and/or described in ways that imply they are not their own person, and that who they are is subject to the choices of another. For example, children are sometimes depicted alongside their siblings or other family members, styled and posed in precisely the same way. While this makes for an aesthetically engaging image, to see this type of image shared repeatedly raises questions for us around child identity and agency.
Children as objects and ornaments: Objectifying practices have been prevalent in the posts we have examined. Children’s faces may be cropped out with only sections of their body shown – when this is the case, it is often done in the interest of focusing on a product being promoted. In addition to these objectifying practices, children are often depicted as though they are ornamental – they appear like dolls or figurines in their idyllic stillness.

We wonder – what does it mean to be a child represented by others on social media? To what extent do children understand the context of social media and the nature of their own representation? How do children relate to their representation by others, be they family members or brands? What place do these representations hold in their minds and hearts, and what does it mean for their emerging sense of identity and self-image? If children were afforded greater agency to represent themselves from an early age, what shape might this take? And beyond the lived experience for and impact on the children themselves, how does this influence the wider community’s view of and attitude towards children? These questions hold significance for future research, and guide our continuing exploration of the image of the child and its place in social media contexts.

Educators are in a position to make a difference here as they have the opportunity to engage in productive dialogue with children and families. By sharing in dialogue with children and families about our use of social media and how we engage in the representation of self and others, we can arrive at a deeper understanding of these contexts, our engagement with them, and the rights and needs of those we represent.

References

Dobson, M. & Jay, J. (2019). The image of the child re-imagined on Instagram: Provocations and recommendations for educators and families. The Spoke: http://thespoke.earlychildhoodaustralia.org.au/image-child-re-imagined-instagram/

Feighery, W.G. (2012). Editorial. Visual Methodologies, 1(1), 1-2. https://doi.org/10.7331/vm.v1i1.32

Fredrickson, B.L. & Roberts, T.A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173-206. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x

Mannay, D. (2015). Making the visual invisible: exploring creative forms of dissemination that respect anonymity but retain impact. Visual Methodologies, 3(2). https://doi.org/10.7331/vm.v3i2.47

Pauwels, L. (2015). Reframing visual social science: Towards a more visual sociology and anthropology. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

Vänskä, A. (2017). Fashionable childhood: Children in advertising. Bloomsbury Publishing.

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References

References

References

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