WAIER
The premier institute for educational research in Western Australia
Held in March 2022, this Summer Research webinar includes presentations by Associate Professor Peter Wright, Professor Barry Down and Dr. Christine Cunningham.
Link for the individual presentations
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1bxnm_JRV7_wAOBQBAXUvgV47HRz6j4uM?usp=sharing
See the below article for all readings relevant to this qualitative methodologies webinar…
Compiled by Barry Down, Murdoch University.
In this feature article, Jodi Dorney (EdD Candidate, CQ University) explores the impact of domestic and family violence and abuse on young children. If you or someone you know is experiencing abuse or violence contact the National Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence Counselling service on 1800 737 732. Alternatively, you can call lifeline on 131114.
Some scholars argue that the family home is the most dangerous place for women and children [1]. Whilst it can at times be easy to identify a child who is a victim of physical abuse, it is more difficult to identify the child who does not present with the external signs and symptoms, but rather suffers due to witnessing their parent – usually the mother – being abused in the ‘safety’ of the family home.
But how is a child a victim if they are not touched, pushed, or hit?
The rate of women experiencing abuse and violence in the family environment is estimated to be one in three globally[2] and homicides perpetrated by a current or former male intimate partner account for approximately 38% of all global homicides against women[3], a figure that continues to rise[4, 5]. We see or read these stories way too often, with an average of one woman dying every week at the hands of an intimate partner in Australia.
It is estimated that one in four children under five years of age live in a family environment where the mother is a victim of intimate partner violence[5], and whilst many of these children do not suffer direct physical abuse at the hands of the offender, they are witness to often horrific and violent physical attacks on their mother. They may also be witness to their mother being emotionally abused and/or psychologically abused. Emotional abuse is aimed at affecting the person’s feelings, while psychological abuse often involves frightening, isolating and/or controlling someone, consequently impacting their mental health.
Research identified indirect experiences of domestic and family violence can result in negative psychological, physical, and behavioural impacts [6, 7, 8] on the child, and negative effects on their cognitive development [5] , and social and emotional development and functioning [5, 8, 10, 11].
Also, much evidence suggests that because a child usually experiences recurrent exposure to domestic and family violence, often they develop cognitive and behavioural schemas over time related to their gender, such as devaluing their own worth, lack of confidence in adults as protectors, and they may believe that abuse and violence within in the family context is a normal experience for girls [5] and abusive behaviours are normal for boys, which explains the intergenerational transmission effect over generations.
Children learn about emotions primarily from parents and others within the family; however, children living in an abusive and violent family context may be deprived of positive emotional engagement with their parents[11]. Research suggests mothers who are victims of domestic and family violence can suffer from symptoms of anxiety and depression, and may be inattentive, unresponsive, and demonstrate a lack of interest toward their child resulting in insecure attachment [11, 12], impacting the child’s opportunity to learn skills to manage, identify, and express personal emotions [9, 13].
The sometimes erratic, aggressive, and explosive externalising behaviour of a child (usually a boy, because girls usually adopt an internalised victim-mentality) who has been exposed to abuse and violence in the family environment can hinder opportunities for the child to engage in positive social interactions with friends and adults [14]. Furthermore, unstable, unpredictable, and fractured connections between the child and parents within a violent environment can promote a lack of trust, safety, and security within the child and a failure to acquire and learn fundamental social skills [15].
Early childhood is a crucial time for a child’s language development[15] too, as language skills allow a child to communicate and connect with others, and these interactions promote the development of cognitive skills [15].
Family environments lacking in stimulation also have the potential of inhibiting the brain to develop to its full potential [15] . Suffering stress within an abusive and violent family environment has been identified as a potential precursor to diminished cognitive development as it can impair the young child’s brain [15]. Children living with domestic and family violence often experience fear and subsequently suffer chronic stress [15], and it has been identified that children who experience stress and constant anxiety may have cognitive difficulties such as thinking clearly enough to problem solve and reason, and may have difficulty sustaining attention, resulting in the inability to acquire new skills or new information [16], which can result in educational deficits.
As many people may not be aware that witnessing domestic and family violence as a young child can have such detrimental effects on a child’s development and wellbeing, and with 2020 being a year where rates of domestic and family violence have reportedly increased [16], it is crucial that as educators we engage in the sometimes uncomfortable and confronting conversations about the visible and invisible effects of domestic and family violence with others, including peers and parents.
The focus of my current research is on the impact of intrafamilial violence on children in early childhood, and through exploring early childhood educators’ knowledge regarding the impact of exposure to intrafamilial violence on a developing child, I aim to develop a professional teaching resource prototype that supports early childhood educators to effectively identify, respond to, and support children impacted by intrafamilial violence.
It is essential that we advocate for and be aware of all children impacted by domestic and family violence, directly and/or indirectly and keep their safety and wellbeing at the forefront of our endeavours.
Jodi Dorney is an early childhood educator from Victoria, currently completing her Doctor of Education at CQUniversity. Her interest and advocacy for children impacted by intrafamilial violence results from many years working in various early childhood education settings.
[1] United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2018). Gender-related killing of women and girls. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/GSH2018/GSH18_Gender-related_killing_of_women_and_girls.pdf
[2] World Health Organisation (WHO). (2019). Respect women: Preventing violence against women. Geneva. Retrieved from https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/312261/WHO-RHR-18.19-eng.pdf?ua=1
[3] Lutwak, N. (2018). The psychology of health and illness: The mental health and physiological effects of intimate partner violence on women. The Journal of Psychology, 152(6), 373-387. doi:10.1080/00223980.2018.1447435
[4] Guggisberg, M. (2018). Chapter 2: Conceptualising intimate partner sexual violence: danger and harm to victim survivors and the role of persistent myths. In Guggisberg, M., & Henricksen, J. (Eds.)., Violence against women in the 21st century: Challenges and future direction (pp. 29-56). Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated.
[5] United Nations Children’s Fund. (UNICEF). (2017). A familiar face: violence in the lives of children and adolescents. Unicef: New York, NY. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/publications/files/Violence_in_the_lives_of_children_and_adolescents.pdf
[6] Carpenter, G., & Stacks, A. M. (2009). Developmental effects of exposure to intimate partner violence in early childhood: A review of the literature. Children and Youth Services Review, 31(8), 831-839. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.cqu.edu.au/10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.03.005
[7] Howell, K. (2011). Resilience and psychopathology in children exposed to family violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16(6), 562-569. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.cqu.edu.au/10.1016/j.avb.2011.09.001
[8] Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Carter, A. S., & Ford, J. D. (2012). Parsing the effects violence exposure in early childhood: Modeling developmental pathways. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 37(1), 11-22. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsro63
[9] Fusco, R. A. (2017). Socioemotional problems in children exposed to intimate partner violence: Mediating effects of attachment and family supports. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(16), 2515–2532. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.cqu.edu.au/10.1177%2F0886260515593545
[10] Osofsky, J. (1995). The Effects of Exposure to Violence on Young Children. The American Psychologist, 50(9), 782-788.
[11] Gelfand, D. M., & Teti, D. M. (1990). The effects of maternal depression on children. Clinical Psychology Review, 10(3), 329-353. https://doi-org.ezproxy.cqu.edu.au/10.1016/0272-7358(90)90065-I
[12] Zahn-Waxler, C., Iannotti, R., Cummings, E., & Denham, S. (1990). Antecedents of problem behaviors in children of depressed mothers. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 271-291. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400000778
[13] Cummings, E., Cicchetti, D., & Greenberg, M. (1990). Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention.
[14] The National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN). (2019). Complex trauma: effects. Retrieved from https://www.nctsn.org/what-is-child-trauma/trauma-types/complex-trauma/effects
[15] Zauche, L., Thul, T., Mahoney, A., & Stapel-Wax, J. (2016). Influence of language nutrition on children’s language and cognitive development: An integrated review. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 36, 318-333.
[16] Morgan, A. & Boxall, H. (2020). Social isolation, time spent at home, financial stress and domestic violence during the COVID-19 pandemic. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, 609, 1-18.
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In this feature article, Felicity Roux (PhD Candidate, Curtin University) explores the power of the ovulatory-menstrual cycle as a personal health monitor and ovulatory-menstrual health literacy. Felicity is a member of the WAIER Committee for 2021.
* The terms girls and women are used in relation to a person’s sex (i.e. their biological characteristics or reproductive organs). It is recognised that this may differ from gender identity. For example, someone who menstruates may or may not identify as “female”.
The span of years from menarche to menopause can extend 40 years or more. Throughout this time, the ovulatory-menstrual cycle can be used as a personal health monitor. According to the American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists, the cycle is a “powerful tool” to assess overall health, and menstruation can be considered a vital sign [1]. This means that the cycle is of equal significance to a beating heart and breathing lungs. So it stands to reason that the ability of a woman to understand her own cycles as her personal health monitor would be a useful lifelong skill. The way in which these basic skills can be learnt has been available to the general public since the 1980s [2]. However, a recent systematic literature review describes how, some forty years later, these health literacy skills are insufficiently taught [3].
It is a mistake to believe that all things menstrual are covered in the puberty lessons for Years 5 to 7. The immaturity of the average girl’s hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis means that post-menarche cycles are mostly anovulatory [4]. It can take up to three years for ovulatory processes to mature [5]. Years 8 to 10 are when girls become most likely capable of appropriating the complexity of the cycle [6]. Coincidentally, common menstrual problems are increasingly reported, such as painful periods [7], premenstrual syndrome [8] and abnormal bleeding patterns [9]. Some problems are associated with absenteeism [7, 8], reduced classroom performance [7, 8], body dissatisfaction [10], eating disorders [11], non-suicidal self-injury [12], and poor quality of life [13].
The review [3] suggested that a crowded Health & Physical Education curriculum results in insufficient time to teach girls ovulatory-menstrual health literacy skills. As a taboo topic shrouded in shame and stigma [14], there may also be a reluctance to teach it.
Where there have been initiatives to address menstrual health, programs tended to focus on a single problem (such as painful periods or irregular cycles) rather than addressing all of the most commonly experienced problems. Furthermore, by predicating programs on a menstrual problem, there is likely a missed opportunity to frame the cycle positively as an indicator of good health first and foremost. Whilst there has been some progress towards teaching girls ovulatory-menstrual health literacy, the review3 found no programs which covered all the health literacy dimensions (functional, interactive and critical), upon which the Western Australian curriculum is based [15].
The review’s recommendations [3] informed the development of the My Vital Cycles program which will be trialled in Term 2 and 3 of 2021.
[1] American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists Committee. (2015). Opinion No. 651: Menstruation in Girls and Adolescents: Using the Menstrual Cycle as a Vital Sign. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 126(6), e143-e146 doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000001215
[2] Billings, E., & Westmore, A. (1980). The Billings Method: Controlling fertility without drugs or devices. Richmond, Victoria Australia: Anne O’Donovan Pty Ltd.
[3] Roux, F., Burns, S., Hendriks, J., & Chih, H.J. (2021). Progressing Towards Adolescent Ovulatory menstrual Health Literacy: A Systematic Literature Review of School-based Interventions. Women’s Reproductive Health, 8(2). doi:10.1080/23293691.2021.1901517
[4] Carlson, L., & Shaw, N. (2019). Development of Ovulatory Menstrual Cycles in Adolescent Girls. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 32(3), 249-253. doi:10.1016/j.jpag.2019.02.119
[5] Jamieson, M. (2015). Disorders of Menstruation in Adolescent Girls. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 62(4), 943-961. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2015.04.007
[6] Klaus, H., & Martin, J. L. (1989). Recognition of Ovulatory/Anovulatory Cycle Pattern in Adolescents by Mucus Self-Detection. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 10, 93-96
[7] Armour, M., Parry, K., Manohar, N., Holmes, K., Ferfolja, T., Curry, C., . . . Smith, C. A. (2019). The Prevalence and Academic Impact of Dysmenorrhea in 21,573 Young Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Women’s Health, 28(8), 1161-1171. doi:10.1089/jwh.2018.7615
[8] Parker, M., Sneddon, A., & Arbon, P. (2010). The menstrual disorder of teenagers (MDOT) study: determining typical menstrual patterns and menstrual disturbance in a large population‐based study of Australian teenagers. BJOG, 117(2), 185-192. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.2009.02407.x
[9] Maslyanskaya, S., et al. (2017). Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: An Under-recognized Cause of Abnormal Uterine Bleeding in Adolescents Admitted to a Children’s Hospital. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 30(3), 349-355
[10] Ambresin, A.-E., Belanger, R. E., Chamay, C., Berchtold, A., & Narring, F. (2012). Body Dissatisfaction on Top of Depressive Mood among Adolescents with Severe Dysmenorrhea. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 25(1), 19-22. doi:10.1016/j.jpag.2011.06.014
[11] Abraham, S., Boyd, C., Lal, M., Luscombe, G., & Taylor, A. (2009). Time since menarche, weight gain and body image awareness among adolescent girls: onset of eating disorders. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology, 30(2), 89-94. doi:10.1080/01674820902950553
[12] Liu, X., Liu, Z. Z., Fan, F., & Jia, C. X. (2018). Menarche and menstrual problems are associated with non-suicidal self-injury in adolescent girls. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 21(6), 649-656. doi:10.1007/s00737-018-0861-y
[13] Knox, B., Nur Azurah, A., & Grover, S. (2015). Quality of life and menstruation in adolescents. Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 27(5), 309-314. doi:10.1097/GCO.0000000000000199
[14] Chrisler, J. C. (2013). Teaching Taboo Topics. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(1), 128-132. doi:10.1177/0361684312471326
[15] SCSA – School Curriculum and Standards Authority, Government of Western Australia. (2017). Health and Physical Education Curriculum 2017/9396 [2017/9397] https://k10outline.scsa.wa.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/364552/Health-and-Physical-Education-Curriculum-Pre-primary-to-Year-10.PDF Accessed 2020 06 16
In this feature article Dr. Saul Karnovsky from Curtin University explores teachers’ emotions.
Australian universities enrol thousands of people to become teachers. Some who choose to study education are motivated by a desire to make a difference to the lives of young people, while others are looking for job security and intellectual fulfilment.
A course in education encompasses a broad range of cognitive and technical skills aligned to professional teacher standards. Yet, what is largely missing from a teaching degree is what to do with emotions as a teacher.
Despite all the theory, training and practical experience, research shows teachers’ professional lives can be highly demanding, pressured, stressful and at times, emotionally exhausting.
In doctoral research, I followed pre-service teachers throughout their course. I found there exists an invisible rule book that defines what teachers can and cannot do with their emotions.
Our teachers recently started the school year. Many are likely facing a range of emotional challenges including working with difficult students and communities, managing increasing administrative control over their work and standardisation reforms. All these can result in substantial mental health issues.
One Australian study found increasing numbers of teachers suffer from persistent anxiety and depression. Up to 50% burn out or simply leave in the first five years of their career.
Early studies are showing the COVID-19 lockdowns of 2020 are further exacerbating the stresses facing Australian teachers.
Because teaching is emotionally demanding, teachers experience what is known as “emotional labour”. This is when teachers have to manage, suppress or feign their emotions as part of the work. Like other forms of labour, doing so can become exhausting.
Understanding these facts is a fundamental part of learning to become a teacher. I’ve come to know this through years of researching teacher emotions, specifically focused on those learning to teach.
I spoke with and collected questionnaires from almost one hundred education students in a large Western Australian university. I wanted to find out how someone who wants to become a teacher learnt what they should or should not be doing with their emotions in secondary schools.
I found pre-service teachers learnt about the rules for emotional behaviour from expectations and assumptions about teacher’s work, which was confirmed when they began training in school placements.
From interviews, focus groups, diary entries and questionnaires, I have summarised some of the unwritten rules these teaching students spoke of:
Don’t ever cry in front of students, because if you do, they will see you as weak and eat you alive.
Don’t lose your temper, shout or get angry, because if you do, students will lose respect for you.
Don’t show your emotional vulnerability, especially not to other teachers, because if you do, they might think you are not right for the job.
Many pre-service teachers explained they worked at “hiding” or “suppressing” their vulnerable emotions from students and other teachers.
Some said they put on a “mask”, “a brave face” or “façade” to show they were “professional” and could “control” their emotions.
One participant experienced “intense frustration” during school placement in trying to manage and engage a group of behaviourally difficult students, which led to her feeling “emotionally overwhelmed”.
She hid these emotions from her supervising teacher, telling me she did not want to “appear weak”. So she held back her tears because she would “hate” being the “little woman that cries at work, who gets upset”.
This shows there exists a demand for teachers to behave in ways they believe to be acceptable. All these pre-service teachers have learnt to keep a hold of their “inappropriate” emotions in front of other teachers or risk being perceived as incompetent and unprofessional.
Navigating the emotional rules of learning to teach is a significant aspect of becoming a teacher, yet it goes largely unrecognised in an initial teacher education course.
Such labour in teaching can have personal costs and lead to emotional exhaustion, depression and anxiety.
If we are to ensure thousands of newly enrolled teachers are to thrive in their courses and careers, we must make the invisible emotional rules of the profession seen and heard.
I believe if pre-service teachers can come together with teacher educators to explore these emotional rules, they could build resilience to confront the many emotional challenges of modern teaching.
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
Dr. Saul Karnovsky is a member of the WAIER Committee for 2021.
Dr Madeleine Rose Dobson is a Senior Lecturer in the Curtin University School of Education, and a WAIER Committee Member. In this feature article Madeleine explores the benefits of play and the importance of advocating for play.
The significance of play deserves recognition and respect by all stakeholders in children’s lives. Play is recognised as a right of all children in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Research that speaks to the benefits of play is long-existing, extensive, and decisive. Play is integral to children’s development across domains (e.g. Gordon, 2014) and influences key areas such as children’s psychological wellbeing (e.g. Chang, Qian & Yarnal, 2013), resilience and social competence (e.g. Casey, Stagnitti, Taket & Nolan, 2012), imaginative and creative thinking (e.g. Sansanwal, 2014), and problem-solving (e.g. Solis, Curtis & Hayes-Messinger, 2017).
And yet, there are persistent and pernicious barriers for educators, children, families and communities to confront. An erosion of play is noted across media, curriculum, and ideology (Lewis, 2017). In some schools, play has become taboo and educators are pressured to favour more ‘academic’ types of learning and teaching – this, of course, ignores the reality that play and learning are closely linked and often indistinguishable (Pendlebury, 2016). Outdoor play has become extremely limited (Bento & Dias, 2017), and further to that, not all families and communities have access to the kind of spaces where play is welcomed and encouraged. Play is often misconceptualised as belonging solely to the early years, when in fact, older children are just as deserving of opportunities to engage in play and playful ways of learning.
In my role as Lecturer and Course Coordinator of Early Childhood at Curtin University’s School of Education, I am fortunate to have the opportunity to work closely with pre-service teachers and new graduates who are well-versed in the importance of play and who are ambitious and innovative in their implementation of play-based learning methods. Last year, I led Curtin University’s School of Education creation and dissemination of a position statement on play. This statement acknowledges the centrality and multidimensionality of play in children’s lives, and calls for adults to advocate for and contribute to children’s play. There are many ways in which this can be accomplished.
In schools, educators can pursue play-based and inquiry learning methods where children are engaged with agency – Journeys of Inquiry offers comprehensive guidance and insightful case-studies about how the realisation of this method across Western Australian independent schools. Green school grounds are also a valuable pursuit – naturalising school environments through gardens, nature-based play spaces, and connections to nearby bushland or woodland can support children’s wellbeing and create opportunities for discovery, creativity, and collaboration (Chawla, Keena, Pevec & Stanley, 2014).
Parents and carers can create and seek out opportunities for play at home and in local community contexts – their investment in playful interactions are thoroughly advantageous for their children and their child-parent/carer relationship (Ginsburg, 2007). At a broader community level, we should be investing in child-friendly cities and play spaces that embrace the ‘Seven Cs’: character, context, connectivity, change, chance, clarity, and challenge. For researchers, there is work yet to be done – as children’s ways of living, learning, and playing continue to evolve, further research is not only possible but imperative.
Lastly, ongoing advocacy in this space is critical. Not only is play a right of all children, it is a meaningful and formative part of their lives. As we continue pushing for greater recognition and respect for the benefits of play and its place in our educational contexts and communities, it is vital that our advocacy involve children. The perspectives and experiences of children are of great value in this space and can take us beyond adult understandings (Nicholson, Shimpi, Kurnik, Carducci & Jevgjovikj, 2014). Play is worth fighting for – as we keep fighting for it, we ought to do so in partnership with children, who are the very people most involved and affected.
Bento, G. & Dias, G. (2017). The importance of outdoor play for young children’s healthy development. Porto Biomedical Journal, 2(5), 157-160. doi:10.1016/j.pbj.2017.03.003
Casey, S.A., Stagnitti, K., Taket, A. & Nolan, A. (2012). Early peer play interactions of resilient children living in disadvantaged communities. International Journal of Play, 1(3), 311-323. doi:10.1080/21594937.2012.741432
Chang, P., Qian, X. & Yarnal, C. (2013). Using playfulness to cope with psychological stress: taking into account both positive and negative emotions. International Journal of Play, 2(3), 273-296. doi:10.1080/21594937.2013.855414
Chawla, L., Keena, K., Pevec, I. & Stanley, E. (2014). Green schoolyards as havens from stress and resources for resilience in childhood and adolescence. Health & Place, 28, 1-13. doi: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2014.03.001
Duncan, R. (2018). Journeys of inquiry. Osborne Park, WA: AISWA.
Ginsburg, K.R. (2007). The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent–child bonds. Pediatrics, 119(1), doi: 10.1542/peds.2006-2697
Gordon, G. (2014). Well played: The origins and future of playfulness. American Journal of Play, 6(2), 234-266.
Herrington, S., Lesmeister, C., Nicholls, J. & Stefiuk, K. (2007). 7Cs: An informational guide to young children’s outdoor play spaces. Retrieved from https://sala.ubc.ca/sites/sala.ubc.ca/files/documents/7Cs.pdf
Laker, L. (2018). What would the ultimate child-friendly city look like? The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2018/feb/28/child-friendly-city-indoors-playing-healthy-sociable-outdoors
Lewis, P.J. (2017). The erosion of play. International Journal of Play, 1, 10-23. doi:10.1080/21594937.2017.1288391
Nicholson, J., Shimpi, P.M., Kurnik, J., Carducci, C. & Jevgjovikj, M. (2014). Listening to children’s perspectives on play across the lifespan: children’s right to inform adults’ discussions of contemporary play. International Journal of Play, 3(2), 136-156. doi:10.1080/21594937.2014.937963
Pendlebury, K. (2016). Mental recreation in Wonderland. American Journal of Play, 9(1), 41-55.
Sansanwal, S. (2014). Pretend play enhances creativity and imagination. Journal of Arts and Humanities, 3(1), 70-83.
Solis, S.L., Curtis, K.N. & Hayes-Messinger, A. (2017). Children’s exploration of physical phenomena during object play. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 31(1), 122-140. doi: 10.1080/02568543.2016.1244583
UN General Assembly. (1989). Convention on the rights of the child. https://www.unicef.org/crc/
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