In this feature article, Jodi Dorney (EdD Candidate, CQ University) explores the impact of domestic and family violence and abuse on young children. If you or someone you know is experiencing abuse or violence contact the National Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence Counselling service on 1800 737 732.  Alternatively, you can call lifeline on 131114.

Some scholars argue that the family home is the most dangerous place for women and children ^[1]. Whilst it can at times be easy to identify a child who is a victim of physical abuse, it is more difficult to identify the child who does not present with the external signs and symptoms, but rather suffers due to witnessing their parent – usually the mother – being abused in the ‘safety’ of the family home.

But how is a child a victim if they are not touched, pushed, or hit?  

The rate of women experiencing abuse and violence in the family environment is estimated to be one in three globally^[2] and homicides perpetrated by a current or former male intimate partner account for approximately 38% of all global homicides against women^[3], a figure that continues to rise^{[4, 5]}.  We see or read these stories way too often, with an average of one woman dying every week at the hands of an intimate partner in Australia.

It is estimated that one in four children under five years of age live in a family environment where the mother is a victim of intimate partner violence^[5], and whilst many of these children do not suffer direct physical abuse  at the hands of the offender, they are witness to often horrific and violent physical attacks on their mother. They may also be witness to their mother being emotionally abused and/or psychologically abused. Emotional abuse is aimed at affecting the person’s feelings, while psychological abuse often involves frightening, isolating and/or controlling someone, consequently impacting their mental health.

Research identified indirect experiences of domestic and family violence can result in negative psychological, physical, and behavioural impacts ^{[6, 7, 8]} on the child, and negative effects on their cognitive development ^[5] , and social and emotional development and functioning ^{[5, 8, 10, 11].}

Also, much evidence suggests that because a child usually experiences recurrent exposure to domestic and family violence, often they develop cognitive and behavioural schemas over time related to their gender, such as devaluing their own worth, lack of confidence in adults as protectors, and they may believe that abuse and violence within in the family context is a normal experience for girls ^[5] and abusive behaviours are normal for boys, which explains the intergenerational transmission effect over generations.

Children learn about emotions primarily from parents and others within the family; however, children living in an abusive and violent family context may be deprived of positive emotional engagement with their parents^[11]. Research suggests mothers who are victims of domestic and family violence can suffer from symptoms of anxiety and depression, and may be inattentive, unresponsive, and demonstrate a lack of interest toward their child resulting in insecure attachment ^{[11, 12]}, impacting the child’s opportunity to learn skills to manage, identify, and express personal emotions ^{[9, 13]}.

The sometimes erratic, aggressive, and explosive externalising behaviour of a child (usually a boy, because girls usually adopt an internalised victim-mentality) who has been exposed to abuse and violence in the family environment can hinder opportunities for the child to engage in positive social interactions with friends and adults ^[14]. Furthermore, unstable, unpredictable, and fractured connections between the child and parents within a violent environment can promote a lack of trust, safety, and security within the child and a failure to acquire and learn fundamental social skills ^[15].

Early childhood is a crucial time for a child’s language development^[15] too, as language skills allow a child to communicate and connect with others, and these interactions promote the development of cognitive skills ^[15].

Family environments lacking in stimulation also have the potential of inhibiting the brain to develop to its full potential ^[15] . Suffering stress within an abusive and violent family environment has been identified as a potential precursor to diminished cognitive development as it can impair the young child’s brain ^[15]. Children living with domestic and family violence often experience fear and subsequently suffer chronic stress ^[15], and it has been identified that children who experience stress and constant anxiety may have cognitive difficulties such as thinking clearly enough to problem solve and reason, and may have difficulty sustaining attention, resulting in the inability to acquire new skills or new information ^[16], which can result in educational deficits.

As many people may not be aware that witnessing domestic and family violence as a young child can have such detrimental effects on a child’s development and wellbeing, and with 2020 being a year where rates of domestic and family violence  have reportedly increased ^[16], it is crucial that as educators we engage in the sometimes uncomfortable and confronting conversations about the visible and invisible effects of domestic and family violence with others, including peers and parents.  

The focus of my current research is on the impact of intrafamilial violence on children in early childhood, and through exploring early childhood educators’ knowledge regarding the impact of exposure to intrafamilial violence on a developing child, I aim to develop a professional teaching resource prototype that supports early childhood educators to effectively identify, respond to, and support children impacted by intrafamilial violence.

It is essential that we advocate for and be aware of all children impacted by domestic and family violence, directly and/or indirectly and keep their safety and wellbeing at the forefront of our endeavours.

Jodi Dorney is an early childhood educator from Victoria, currently completing her Doctor of Education at CQUniversity. Her interest and advocacy for children impacted by intrafamilial violence results from many years working in various early childhood education settings.

[1] United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2018). Gender-related killing of women and girls. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/GSH2018/GSH18_Gender-related_killing_of_women_and_girls.pdf

[2] World Health Organisation (WHO). (2019). Respect women: Preventing violence against women. Geneva. Retrieved from https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/312261/WHO-RHR-18.19-eng.pdf?ua=1

[3] Lutwak, N. (2018). The psychology of health and illness: The mental health and physiological effects of intimate partner violence on women. The Journal of Psychology, 152(6), 373-387. doi:10.1080/00223980.2018.1447435

[4]  Guggisberg, M. (2018). Chapter 2: Conceptualising intimate partner sexual violence: danger and harm to victim survivors and the role of persistent myths. In Guggisberg, M., & Henricksen, J. (Eds.)., Violence against women in the 21st century: Challenges and future direction (pp. 29-56). Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated.

[5] United Nations Children’s Fund. (UNICEF). (2017). A familiar face: violence in the lives of children and adolescents. Unicef: New York, NY.  Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/publications/files/Violence_in_the_lives_of_children_and_adolescents.pdf

[6] Carpenter, G., & Stacks, A. M. (2009). Developmental effects of exposure to intimate partner violence in early childhood: A review of the literature. Children and Youth Services Review, 31(8), 831-839. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.cqu.edu.au/10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.03.005

[7] Howell, K. (2011). Resilience and psychopathology in children exposed to family violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16(6), 562-569. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.cqu.edu.au/10.1016/j.avb.2011.09.001

[8] Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Carter, A. S., & Ford, J. D. (2012). Parsing the effects violence exposure in early childhood: Modeling developmental pathways. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 37(1), 11-22. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsro63

[9] Fusco, R. A. (2017). Socioemotional problems in children exposed to intimate partner violence: Mediating effects of attachment and family supports. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(16), 2515–2532. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.cqu.edu.au/10.1177%2F0886260515593545

[10] Osofsky, J. (1995). The Effects of Exposure to Violence on Young Children. The American Psychologist, 50(9), 782-788.

[11] Gelfand, D. M., & Teti, D. M. (1990). The effects of maternal depression on children. Clinical Psychology Review, 10(3), 329-353. https://doi-org.ezproxy.cqu.edu.au/10.1016/0272-7358(90)90065-I

[12] Zahn-Waxler, C., Iannotti, R., Cummings, E., & Denham, S. (1990). Antecedents of problem behaviors in children of depressed mothers. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 271-291.  https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400000778

[13] Cummings, E., Cicchetti, D., & Greenberg, M. (1990). Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention. 

[14] The National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN). (2019). Complex trauma: effects. Retrieved from https://www.nctsn.org/what-is-child-trauma/trauma-types/complex-trauma/effects

[15] Zauche, L., Thul, T., Mahoney, A., & Stapel-Wax, J. (2016). Influence of language nutrition on children’s language and cognitive development: An integrated review. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 36, 318-333.

[16] Morgan, A. & Boxall, H. (2020). Social isolation, time spent at home, financial stress and domestic violence during the COVID-19 pandemic. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, 609, 1-18.

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The significance of play deserves recognition and respect by all stakeholders in children’s lives. Play is recognised as a right of all children in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Research that speaks to the benefits of play is long-existing, extensive, and decisive. Play is integral to children’s development across domains (e.g. Gordon, 2014) and influences key areas such as children’s psychological wellbeing (e.g. Chang, Qian & Yarnal, 2013), resilience and social competence (e.g. Casey, Stagnitti, Taket & Nolan, 2012), imaginative and creative thinking (e.g. Sansanwal, 2014), and problem-solving (e.g. Solis, Curtis & Hayes-Messinger, 2017). 

And yet, there are persistent and pernicious barriers for educators, children, families and communities to confront. An erosion of play is noted across media, curriculum, and ideology (Lewis, 2017). In some schools, play has become taboo and educators are pressured to favour more ‘academic’ types of learning and teaching – this, of course, ignores the reality that play and learning are closely linked and often indistinguishable (Pendlebury, 2016). Outdoor play has become extremely limited (Bento & Dias, 2017), and further to that, not all families and communities have access to the kind of spaces where play is welcomed and encouraged. Play is often misconceptualised as belonging solely to the early years, when in fact, older children are just as deserving of opportunities to engage in play and playful ways of learning. 

In my role as Lecturer and Course Coordinator of Early Childhood at Curtin University’s School of Education, I am fortunate to have the opportunity to work closely with pre-service teachers and new graduates who are well-versed in the importance of play and who are ambitious and innovative in their implementation of play-based learning methods. Last year, I led Curtin University’s School of Education creation and dissemination of a position statement on play. This statement acknowledges the centrality and multidimensionality of play in children’s lives, and calls for adults to advocate for and contribute to children’s play. There are many ways in which this can be accomplished. 

In schools, educators can pursue play-based and inquiry learning methods where children are engaged with agency – Journeys of Inquiry offers comprehensive guidance and insightful case-studies about how the realisation of this method across Western Australian independent schools. Green school grounds are also a valuable pursuit – naturalising school environments through gardens, nature-based play spaces, and connections to nearby bushland or woodland can support children’s wellbeing and create opportunities for discovery, creativity, and collaboration (Chawla, Keena, Pevec & Stanley, 2014). 

Parents and carers can create and seek out opportunities for play at home and in local community contexts – their investment in playful interactions are thoroughly advantageous for their children and their child-parent/carer relationship (Ginsburg, 2007). At a broader community level, we should be investing in child-friendly cities  and play spaces that embrace the ‘Seven Cs’: character, context, connectivity, change, chance, clarity, and challenge. For researchers, there is work yet to be done – as children’s ways of living, learning, and playing continue to evolve, further research is not only possible but imperative. 

Lastly, ongoing advocacy in this space is critical. Not only is play a right of all children, it is a meaningful and formative part of their lives. As we continue pushing for greater recognition and respect for the benefits of play and its place in our educational contexts and communities, it is vital that our advocacy involve children. The perspectives and experiences of children are of great value in this space and can take us beyond adult understandings (Nicholson, Shimpi, Kurnik, Carducci & Jevgjovikj, 2014). Play is worth fighting for – as we keep fighting for it, we ought to do so in partnership with children, who are the very people most involved and affected. 

References

Bento, G. & Dias, G. (2017). The importance of outdoor play for young children’s healthy development. Porto Biomedical Journal, 2(5), 157-160. doi:10.1016/j.pbj.2017.03.003

Casey, S.A., Stagnitti, K., Taket, A. & Nolan, A. (2012). Early peer play interactions of resilient children living in disadvantaged communities. International Journal of Play, 1(3), 311-323. doi:10.1080/21594937.2012.741432

Chang, P., Qian, X. & Yarnal, C. (2013). Using playfulness to cope with psychological stress: taking into account both positive and negative emotions. International Journal of Play, 2(3), 273-296. doi:10.1080/21594937.2013.855414

Chawla, L., Keena, K., Pevec, I. & Stanley, E. (2014). Green schoolyards as havens from stress and resources for resilience in childhood and adolescence. Health & Place, 28, 1-13. doi: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2014.03.001

Duncan, R. (2018). Journeys of inquiry. Osborne Park, WA: AISWA. 

Ginsburg, K.R. (2007). The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent–child bonds. Pediatrics, 119(1), doi: 10.1542/peds.2006-2697

Gordon, G. (2014). Well played: The origins and future of playfulness. American Journal of Play, 6(2), 234-266.

Herrington, S., Lesmeister, C., Nicholls, J. & Stefiuk, K. (2007). 7Cs: An informational guide to young children’s outdoor play spaces. Retrieved from https://sala.ubc.ca/sites/sala.ubc.ca/files/documents/7Cs.pdf

Laker, L. (2018). What would the ultimate child-friendly city look like? The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2018/feb/28/child-friendly-city-indoors-playing-healthy-sociable-outdoors 

Lewis, P.J. (2017). The erosion of play. International Journal of Play, 1, 10-23. doi:10.1080/21594937.2017.1288391

Nicholson, J., Shimpi, P.M., Kurnik, J., Carducci, C. & Jevgjovikj, M. (2014). Listening to children’s perspectives on play across the lifespan: children’s right to inform adults’ discussions of contemporary play. International Journal of Play, 3(2), 136-156. doi:10.1080/21594937.2014.937963 

Pendlebury, K. (2016). Mental recreation in Wonderland. American Journal of Play, 9(1), 41-55.

Sansanwal, S. (2014). Pretend play enhances creativity and imagination. Journal of Arts and Humanities, 3(1), 70-83.

Solis, S.L., Curtis, K.N. & Hayes-Messinger, A. (2017). Children’s exploration of physical phenomena during object play. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 31(1), 122-140. doi: 10.1080/02568543.2016.1244583

UN General Assembly. (1989). Convention on the rights of the child. https://www.unicef.org/crc/

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